Intertestamental Period: Meaning & Events (Timeline)

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

Most of my undergraduate students assume the chronological gap between the Old and the New Testaments is minimal. They often picture the biblical narrative as a seamless progression, from the laws of Moses and the prophets of Israel to the birth of Jesus and the formation of the early church. 

In truth, there is a significant and often overlooked gap between these two bodies of scripture. This is the period that scholars commonly refer to as the intertestamental period, a time when the “official” voices of prophecy had fallen silent, yet history itself was anything but quiet.

It contradicts the unspoken belief that the Bible’s story flows in one continuous line, with no real interruption in either time or theology. But of course, the reality is far more complex.

Though the biblical canon remains silent, Jewish literature, sectarian movements, foreign domination, and theological evolution were all in motion during this time, quietly shaping the world into which Jesus would be born.

When I first introduce this period to students, they are often surprised by how much happens “between the Testaments.” They hadn’t considered that Judaism underwent radical shifts in thought and structure, that empires rose and fell, and that a great deal of social change took place during the time difference between the Old and New Testaments.

In this article, we’ll explore what the intertestamental period was, when it occurred, and why it matters. We’ll begin by examining how the Old Testament ends — and whether it ends at all in a meaningful sense. 

From there, we’ll trace key events, rulers, and religious shifts across the centuries, building a timeline that illuminates how the so-called “400 years of silence” were a time of extraordinary change.

However, before we set out to explore the intertestamental period, you might want to check out an exciting new 8-lecture online course by acclaimed Bible scholar Bart D. Ehrman: Finding Moses: What Scholars Know About The Exodus and The Jewish Law.

In this course, Bart dives deep into what historians and biblical scholars have uncovered about one of the most foundational figures in Judaism, and what we can and cannot know about the Exodus tradition. It’s the perfect companion to understanding the broader sweep of Jewish history.

What Is the Intertestamental Period?

In his book The Creative Era Between the Testaments, Carl G. Howie notes that the “period between the Old and New Testaments is a blank for most laymen as well as many clergymen who are otherwise well-versed in the historical background of the Bible.” So, what exactly is this somewhat enigmatic historical gap that scholars refer to as the intertestamental period?

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Broadly defined, the intertestamental period spans roughly four centuries, from approximately 430 B.C.E., traditionally associated with the prophetic ministry of Malachi, up until around the life of John the Baptist near the turn of the Common Era. 

However, scholars caution against viewing these chronological boundaries as strict or absolute. To illustrate, although Malachi appears as the final prophetic book in the Christian Old Testament, it wasn't necessarily the last Old Testament text written.

From a historical-critical perspective, that distinction likely belongs to the Book of Daniel, composed in the middle of the 2nd century B.C.E. in response to the persecution of Jews under the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes. 

Despite Daniel's internal claims of an earlier, 6th century B.C.E. origin, scholarly consensus, as John J. Collins emphasizes, firmly dates its composition to this much later period.

Moreover, people living in the 2nd century B.C.E. certainly didn't conceive of themselves as existing in a transitional or intertestamental period. They understood their religious identity and historical reality primarily through the sacred texts already recognized and revered: Texts that would later collectively become the Hebrew Bible.

By the late 2nd century CE, the Hebrew Bible had achieved widespread (unofficial) acceptance among Jewish communities as authoritative Scripture, forming an essential theological and cultural backdrop against which all subsequent Jewish religious life and literature developed.

Indeed, precisely because these texts had gained authority as Scripture, the intertestamental period was marked by the prolific emergence of other significant Jewish writings. They often sought to interpret, expand upon, or creatively retell themes and narratives inherited from the Old Testament. 

As Peter Enns succinctly put it, the establishment of Scripture inevitably led to the flourishing of interpretations, often at the expense of creating explicit contradictions! 

With the authority of the Old Testament scriptures firmly established, new interpretive traditions flourished in texts such as the Apocrypha (including books such as Tobit, Judith, and 1-2 Maccabees), the Pseudepigrapha (such as 1 Enoch and Jubilees), and the Dead Sea Scrolls discovered at Qumran.

While authorities ultimately did not include these texts in the Jewish canon, they vividly illustrate the ongoing religious creativity and theological reflection that characterized this vibrant yet often overlooked era.

Intertestamental Period: Significant Political and Social Events

In his book An Introduction to Early Judaism, James C. VanderKam explains that the intertestamental period “was an age in which the Jewish people, wherever they lived, were under the political and military control of other nations. Only for a brief time in the late second and early first centuries B.C.E. did they have their own independent state, which existed, however, under the shadow of far greater powers.”

Summarizing the rich political and social tapestry of these four centuries is challenging, but an overview of the era’s most significant changes can illuminate why this period was so transformative for Judaism.

To begin exploring the political and social backdrop of the intertestamental period, we need to start with the era of Persian dominance, which lasted from 538 until 332 B.C.E.

Following the Babylonian captivity, Persian rule was generally tolerant and allowed Jewish exiles to return to Judea and rebuild their Temple. It was an event of immense religious and national significance. As VanderKam notes:

The reconstruction of this “Second Temple” would profoundly influence Jewish religious life, becoming the spiritual center of Judaism until its destruction in 70 C.E.

Persian rule eventually gave way to Hellenistic dominance with Alexander the Great’s swift conquest in 332 B.C.E. Alexander’s empire fragmented upon his early death, leading Judea into periods of alternating control by the Greek dynasties of the Ptolemies (in Egypt) and Seleucids (in Syria).

This Hellenistic era introduced “Hellenism,” the widespread adoption of Greek culture, language, and thought across the Mediterranean and Near East. As David S. Russell notes in his book Between the Testaments:

The encounter with Hellenism reached a critical turning point during the Seleucid rule, particularly under Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Antiochus' attempts to forcibly Hellenize Judea led directly to the Maccabean Revolt (167-160 B.C.E.).

Jonathan A. Goldstein, in The Cambridge History of Judaism, explains Antiochus’ motivation vividly:

This crisis sparked a powerful nationalist and religious rebellion, led by the priestly family known as the Hasmoneans. The successful revolt restored Jewish religious practices and led to a brief period of political independence under the Hasmonean dynasty, which lasted roughly from 142 to 63 B.C.E.

Yet, even during this seemingly independent state, Judea remained vulnerable, caught between larger powers vying for dominance in the Mediterranean world.

Furthermore, it never broke out completely from the firm grip of Hellenism, not even under the rule of the Hasmonean dynasty. As Simon C. Mimouni explains in his book Le judaïsme ancien du VIe siècle avant notre ère au IIIe siècle de notre ère (Ancient Judaism from the 6th Century B.C.E. to the 3rd Century C.E.):

The Hasmonean rule came to an abrupt end in 63 B.C.E. when the Roman general Pompey captured Jerusalem, marking the beginning of Roman domination. 

Under Rome, Judea lost political autonomy and was governed first by client kings such as Herod the Great, whose rule was marked by impressive building projects (including significant expansions of the Second Temple) but also by harsh political repression. 

Following Herod’s death, direct Roman administration through procurators (including Pontius Pilate) introduced tensions that would later explode in the devastating Jewish War of 66-73 C.E.

Thus, the intertestamental period was anything but quiet. Under Persian, Greek, Hasmonean, and finally Roman dominion, the Jewish people faced constant pressures and transformations.

In response, Jewish communities produced a diverse body of literature vividly expressing their religious ideas, struggles, and hopes within writings that profoundly shaped their theological identity during the intertestamental period.

Intertestamental Period: A Timeline of Key Events

However, before we delve into the most significant parts of the intertestamental literature, we've decided to take a brief chronological detour. After all, let's face it, keeping all those kings, revolts, and empires straight is tough enough without a roadmap. You’re welcome.

Intertestamental Literature: A Brief Survey

During the intertestamental period, “God’s speech” became firmly established in written form, transforming the Judeans into a genuine “people of the book.”

Given the complex political transformations, cultural pressures, and religious challenges they faced, it's hardly surprising that Jewish communities produced a diverse body of literary (non-canonical) works.

One of the most notable genres that emerged during this period is Jewish apocalyptic literature, exemplified by texts such as 1 Enoch. 

Written in stages primarily between the 3rd century B.C.E. and the 1st century C.E., 1 Enoch narrates visions and journeys of the ancient patriarch Enoch, vividly portraying cosmic conflicts, angelic rebellions, and divine judgments.

Similarly, Jubilees, composed around the 2nd century B.C.E., retells the Genesis and Exodus narratives, reshaping Israel’s foundational stories into a theological framework that emphasizes strict observance of the Law and covenantal fidelity in the face of external threats.

Another prominent example is the book of Judith, probably written during or shortly after the Maccabean crisis. 

Although cast as a historical novel set in an earlier period, Judith uses the narrative structure and literary motifs typical of Greek storytelling to assert the moral and religious superiority of Judaism over pagan cultures.

Equally influential, the book of Tobit narrates the adventures of a pious Jewish family in exile, exploring themes of righteousness, divine providence, and religious identity within a diaspora context. Carl G. Howie notes:

These writings, along with others such as the additions to Esther and the various texts later discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls, illustrate vividly how Judean literary creativity flourished during the intertestamental period, actively shaping theological discourse and cultural identity as Jewish communities navigated an ever-changing historical landscape.

Conclusion

Each semester, at the end of my lecture on the history of Second Temple Judaism, my students (hopefully!) come to realize that comprehending the history of early Christianity without understanding the intertestamental period is like stepping into the second act of a play without knowing the first.

As we’ve seen, this stretch between the “end of the Hebrew Bible” and the emergence of the New Testament was anything but dormant. Jewish communities lived under a succession of imperial powers, from the Persians to the Romans, each leaving its imprint on Judean society.

In the face of foreign rule, sectarian conflict, and ideological contestation, Jews not only preserved their traditions but reimagined them, producing a diverse corpus of non-canonical literature that explored apocalyptic hopes, reinterpreted ancestral stories, and articulated new visions of righteousness and resistance.