Second Temple Judaism: Meaning and Timeline

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

There is a popular saying among historians: “A text without a context is a pretext.” In other words, if we attempt to interpret people, ideas, or events from the past without first understanding the world they inhabited, we risk misrepresenting them entirely.

I remember the first time I heard this phrase in a university lecture hall. It was during an introductory course on the historical Jesus, taught by a professor whose clarity and passion left a lasting impression. “If you want to understand the historical Jesus,” he told us, “you first need to understand Second Temple Judaism.”

That statement, simple as it seemed, opened a door into a world of overlapping traditions, sectarian disputes, and shifting political powers. From that moment on, I began to see the study of history not as a mere exercise in collecting facts, but as a way of restoring lost voices to their rightful context.

That same lecture made another point that has stayed with me: Historical figures do not live in a vacuum. They speak particular languages, navigate specific cultural tensions, and react to the realities of their own time. Jesus, his followers, and even his opponents were all products of a distinct historical setting.

To separate them from it would be like trying to understand Martin Luther without the medieval Church, or Gandhi without British colonialism. The roots of early Christianity are deeply intertwined with the soil of Second Temple Judaism. Unless we first understand that foundation, we cannot truly grasp what grew out of it.

As a historian of early Christianity, I’ve come to appreciate how crucial it is to understand the broader landscape from which the movement emerged. The period we now refer to as “Second Temple Judaism” wasn’t a monolith. Rather, it was a dynamic and evolving world, shaped by empire, exile, temple ritual, and theological innovation.

What is Second Temple Judaism? In the sections that follow, we’ll explore what historians mean when referring to it, trace its historical arc, and examine the profound changes that occurred after the temple’s destruction in 70 C.E.

If you're interested in the historical roots of Judaism and want to explore how scholars approach one of its most iconic figures, you might enjoy Dr. Bart D. Ehrman’s online course Finding Moses: What Scholars Know About the Exodus and the Jewish Law.

In eight engaging lectures, Dr. Ehrman examines the Book of Exodus from a critical perspective, asking whether Moses was a historical figure or a legendary creation, and what that means for understanding the origins of Jewish law and tradition.

When Was Second Temple Judaism? Defining the Era

For Jews, there is a collective past that contributes enormously to their sense of unity, and without which Judaism cannot be understood. The collective memory in Judaism isn’t merely a sequence of events that once transpired, but a story to be studied, transmitted, and in certain cases, even re-lived.

In other words, Judaism represents an ongoing but constantly changing saga of 4,000 years. Each period left its distinct mark; thus, although certain basic beliefs were fixed, new expressions were constantly being added, or replacing earlier ones. 

How should we understand the period known as Second Temple Judaism? What are its major features? Most importantly, when did it occur?

Broadly speaking, the term “Second Temple Judaism” refers to the religious, cultural, and political developments in Jewish life between the rebuilding of the Jerusalem Temple after the Babylonian exile (circa 516 B.C.E.) and its destruction by the Romans in 70 C.E. 

But why was the rebuilding necessary in the first place? To understand that, we must look back to what Jewish tradition regards as the First Temple, constructed by King Solomon in the 10th century B.C.E. According to biblical accounts, Solomon built the Temple in Jerusalem as a permanent dwelling place for the Ark of the Covenant and as the central site for Israelite worship.

This structure stood as the heart of Jewish religious life for centuries until 586 B.C.E., when the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II captured Jerusalem, razed the Temple to the ground, and exiled much of the Judean population to Babylon.

The nearly six-century-long era of Second Temple Judaism saw profound transformations, not only in the physical and political landscape of Judea but also in the diverse ways Jewish identity, theology, and practice were conceived and negotiated.

As Loren T. Stuckenbruck notes, this period is “pivotal,” not simply because of its chronological placement between the First and Second Jewish Temples, but because it witnessed “a series of far-reaching socioreligious and political shifts” that influenced Jewish communities in Judea and across the diaspora.

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Despite the tendency to view ancient Judaism as a singular, monolithic religion, the Second Temple period is best understood as a tapestry woven from many different strands.

And yet, even amidst the diversity, certain enduring features can be identified: A shared commitment to sacred traditions (particularly the Torah), reverence for the Temple as the earthly dwelling of God, and ongoing efforts to define Jewish identity in the face of foreign rule and internal tensions.

At the heart of this era stood the Second Temple itself, originally rebuilt by returning exiles under the Persian Empire and later magnificently renovated by Herod the Great in the 1st century B.C.E. Bart D. Ehrman and Hugo Mendez note the paramount importance of the Jewish Temple:

To put it more bluntly, the Temple served as the ritual and symbolic center of Jewish life. It was the locus of daily sacrifices, annual pilgrimages, priestly activity, and national festivals. But beyond its function as a religious institution, it also served as a political and economic hub.

For many Jews, to imagine religious life without the Temple was nearly unthinkable, a reality that would be deeply challenged in the wake of its destruction.

Yet Second Temple Judaism wasn’t limited to Jerusalem. As Stuckenbruck emphasizes, this was a period of intense cultural interaction, political upheaval, and geographic dispersion. 

Jewish communities thrived in the diaspora (in Egypt, Babylon, Asia Minor, and beyond) where they creatively adapted their traditions to new settings, often translating sacred texts into Greek and engaging with surrounding cultures.

Throughout this time, the memory of the Temple and the land of Israel remained powerful symbols, even for those who lived far from them. Still, the lived reality of Judaism evolved and expanded, responding to new circumstances while staying rooted in ancient narratives.

Second Temple Judaism: Social, Religious, and Political Background

Needless to say, Second Temple Judaism didn’t emerge separate from outside influence. Rather, a succession of foreign empires, each imposing its political systems, economic models, and cultural values on the Jewish people shaped it.

From the return from Babylonian exile under Persian auspices in the late 6th century B.C.E. to the increasing tensions under Roman occupation in the 1st century C.E., the Jewish population of Judea and the broader diaspora navigated complex political circumstances while negotiating their religious identity.

As Daniel M. Gurtner emphasizes, the historical and political contexts of this period weren’t simply background details. Rather, they were formative pressures that fundamentally influenced the evolution of Jewish life, belief, and practice.

The Persian Empire (539-332 B.C.E.) provided the earliest foundation for this new era. After conquering Babylon, Cyrus the Great issued an edict permitting the exiled Judeans to return and rebuild the Jerusalem Temple, which, as already noted, had been destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 B.C.E.

The Second Temple was completed around 516 B.C.E. and became the central symbol of religious continuity. Persian policy allowed a considerable degree of local religious autonomy without any strict policies of imposing foreign cults and beliefs.

The arrival of Alexander the Great and the subsequent division of his empire introduced new dynamics. Under the Hellenistic kingdoms of the Ptolemies (based in Egypt) and later the Seleucids (based in Syria), Judea experienced both cultural exchange and political exploitation

Greek language, education, and customs penetrated deeply into urban centers, challenging traditional Jewish norms. These changes culminated in the policies of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, whose attempt to suppress Jewish religious practices and install Hellenistic cults in the Temple sparked the Maccabean Revolt in the 160s B.C.E. and the rise of the Hasmonean dynasty.

However, the true reasons for this revolt go beyond the simplified Antiochus IV vs. Jews picture that previous generations of scholars often painted.

Simon C. Mimouni, in his book Le judaïsme ancien du VIe siècle avant notre ère au IIIe siècle de notre ère (Ancient Judaism from the 6th Century B.C.E. to the 3rd Century C.E.) explains:

In any case, the Hasmonean period (140-63 B.C.E.) was marked by both expansion and internal strain. The rulers expanded Jewish territory and enforced religious uniformity, but their legitimacy was often contested. Conflicts between different Jewish factions intensified, particularly over questions of priestly authority, legal interpretation, and relations with foreign (Hellenistic) powers.

These divisions laid the groundwork for the emergence of competing groups within Judaism (see Did You Know? section), even as the Hasmonean leadership became increasingly aligned with aristocratic and priestly interests.

Eventually, internal conflict and external pressure led to Roman intervention. In 63 B.C.E., Pompey the Great entered Jerusalem and effectively made Judea a client state of the Roman Republic.

Under Roman rule, and especially during the reign of Herod the Great (37-4 B.C.E.), the political landscape of Judea was further transformed. Herod, appointed king by Rome, was a shrewd and ruthless figure who maintained power through a mix of brutal suppression and ambitious building projects.

His most famous contribution was the massive renovation and expansion of the Jerusalem Temple. It was a move that sought to win favor with the Jewish population while displaying his loyalty to Rome. 

Herod’s reign, however, was marked by deep suspicion and political volatility. In his book Backgrounds of Early Christianity, Everett Ferguson notes that “although Herod was a Jew by religion, his racial descent was Edomite,” and despite his efforts to appease the Jews, he was never popular. 

The fact that he killed a large part of his own family (Emperor Augustus famously quipped he would rather be Herod's pig than Herod's son) and ordered the arrest and execution of prominent citizens upon his death (so there would be mourning whether people liked him or not) certainly didn’t help his popularity among the Jewish people.

His successors, including Archelaus and the Roman procurators who followed, struggled to maintain enduring stability. Increasing economic burdens and mounting resentment toward Roman interference in Jewish religious life fostered a climate of unrest that would eventually erupt in open revolt.

Consequently, by the mid-1st century C.E., the social fabric of Judean society had begun to fray under the weight of Roman taxation, elite collaboration with imperial powers, and widespread disillusionment among the population.

In other words, the world of Second Temple Judaism on the eve of the war in 66 C.E. was one of remarkable diversity, spiritual vitality, and deep tension – a tension that would eventually lead to the collapse of the entire period and the emergence of rabbinic Judaism.

The End of Second Temple Judaism

It’s an irony of history that Second Temple Judaism began after Jews returned from exile, and ended with a devastating war and yet another exile. What had been a long and dynamic period of religious life, cultural development, and political adaptation was brought to a violent halt in 70 C.E. with the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple by the Romans.

Scholars have broadly identified five interwoven causes for the revolt that erupted in 66 C.E.: Social inequality, fiscal exploitation, political frustration, cultural dislocation, and ideological alienation.

The political dimension was particularly explosive. As Mimouni notes: 

Similarly, Paul Johnson, in his book A History of the Jews, notes that the “real trouble with the Jews was that they were too advanced, too intellectually conscious to find alien rule acceptable.” 

Except for the Sadducean elite (a small group mostly drawn from the priestly class and Temple functionaries), the majority of Judeans longed for some degree of national self-determination, free from Greek influence and Roman exploitation.

Simultaneously, cultural and economic pressures mounted. The spread of Greco-Roman culture, institutions, and urban life alienated large segments of the population, especially in rural areas. Roman taxation policies and land seizures impoverished many Judeans, while the collaboration of elite classes with imperial power created sharp social divides.

So, when open revolt broke out in 66 C.E., it was driven by both desperate anger and messianic hope, but it was also met with brutal Roman efficiency.

The war reached its tragic climax in 70 C.E. when Titus, son of the Emperor Vespasian, led Roman forces in the siege and destruction of Jerusalem. The Temple (the very heart of Jewish religious life) was reduced to rubble.

In his book From the Maccabees to the Mishnah, Shaye Cohen notes the profound consequences of the Jewish revolt:

For generations, Jews had turned toward this sacred center to offer sacrifices, observe festivals, and gather in pilgrimage. Its annihilation marked not merely the loss of a building, but the collapse of a religious world. As Gedaliah Alon observed:

Out of this vacuum emerged a bold and adaptive response in the form of rabbinic Judaism. 

This period, as Shaye Cohen explains, “begins in 70 CE and ends in the 6th century CE. Historians of the ancient world usually refer to these centuries as 'late antiquity' because they mark the end of the classical world... For historians of Judaism, these centuries also mark the end of one world and the beginning of another. The shift from Second Temple Judaism to rabbinic Judaism is not a mere chronological transition but a substantive change.”

Rabbinic literature ascribes much of the initial effort to reimagine Jewish life to Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai. According to later traditions, Yohanan negotiated with Roman authorities to establish a center for learning and religious leadership in Yavne (Jamnia), a small town on the southern coast. 

The Mishnah attributes to him several key ordinances aimed at preserving religious continuity by adapting or relocating formerly Temple-bound practices to new settings. These changes laid the groundwork for a revised authority structure in which the rabbis, not the priests, would take center stage.

Though the details of these accounts were likely shaped by generations of retrospective editing, they reflect a real historical process: The gradual emergence of rabbinic Judaism.

This post-Temple Judaism took on a markedly different character. It was decentralized, text-based, and spiritually elastic. Synagogues became the new centers of communal life. 

Sacrifice gave way to prayer, and the charismatic authority of the rabbi replaced the inherited status of the priest. Rabbis, unlike the Temple priesthood, could travel, teach, and gather disciples across Judea and the diaspora.

Over time, their interpretations of the Torah and their commitment to halakhic reasoning would define Jewish religious life for centuries to come. Though born out of crisis, this restructured Judaism proved resilient, adaptable, and deeply rooted in the experience of survival. With the Temple in ruins, Second Temple Judaism passed into history.

Conclusion

As we noted at the beginning, “a text without a context is a pretext.” Nowhere is this more apparent than in the case of early Christianity and the world that gave rise to it.

To understand the teachings, tensions, and trajectories of Jesus and his earliest followers, we must first understand the historical landscape they inhabited. That landscape was Second Temple Judaism. It was a period of vibrant diversity, political complexity, and theological creativity.

Without it, many of the debates, practices, and expectations we find in the New Testament remain historically unintelligible.

Second Temple Judaism, though long past, left a profound imprint on Jewish and Christian history alike. Its destruction didn’t mark an end, but a transformation. What emerged in its place (rabbinic Judaism, synagogue worship, portable traditions) testifies to the resilience of a people and their faith.