Who Wrote the Torah?

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

Jews, Christians, and Muslims have long revered the Torah, comprising the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, as one of the world's most influential sacred texts. Traditionally, it has been understood as the work of Moses, who received God's law, including the 10 Commandments, on Mount Sinai and recorded it for future generations. That belief shaped religious thought for centuries and remains central to many faith communities today. But is it true? Do we really know who wrote the Torah?

In this article, I’ll explain what the Torah is, why Moses was traditionally regarded as its author, the evidence that led scholars to question that belief, and the leading theories about its composition. I’ll also look into how Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and other faith traditions understand its authorship today.

What Is the Torah?

The Torah, which means "instruction," "teaching," or "law" in Hebrew, is the first 5 books of the Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. We know what language the Torah was originally written in—Hebrew—but it was also translated in ancient times into Greek. For this reason, it is also sometimes called the Pentateuch from the Greek words pente, meaning “five” and teukhos, meaning “implement” or “vessel.” However, in addition, it is sometimes called the Five Books of Moses since its authorship has traditionally been attributed to Moses. While the entire Hebrew Bible is important for both Jews and Christians, the Torah is the very textual basis of Judaism, including its early history, theology, and practices.

Did Moses write the Pentateuch? Jewish tradition says that the Torah was given directly to Moses by God on Mount Sinai (see Exodus 31:18). This was also central to the biblical account of God's covenant with the Israelites as Moses relates in this passage:

But how much can we trust this authorial attribution and what do scholars say?

What Evidence Do We Have that Moses Wrote the Pentateuch?

When did Moses write the Pentateuch? Most scholars today have concluded that he did not. Doubts about the traditional Mosaic authorship began even in the Middle Ages. However, it was in the 17th century, the beginning of the historical period known as the Enlightenment, that some began to deeply question the traditional ascription of the Torah to Moses.

As Michael Coogan points out in A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament, a French Catholic priest named Richard Simon got the ball rolling by pointing out that

Later scholars would discover even more reasons to doubt that Moses wrote the Torah himself. For instance, Bart Ehrman notes that  “Deut. 34:5-12 describes in detail Moses’ death. How could Moses, as an author writing the Pentateuch, describe his own death as a past event?” Furthermore, in Genesis 36:31, we read that “These are the kings who reigned in the land of Edom, before any king reigned over the Israelites.” Ehrman writes that “This is a verse that presupposes that the author knows of a time when kings were to rule over Israel.  But that would not happen for over two centuries after the death of Moses.”

All in all, for many scholars, the notion of Moses’ authorship is all but difficult to maintain in light of the historical evidence. As a result, differing theories about who wrote the Torah have been developed.

The Documentary Hypothesis

This is the oldest and best-known historical theory in the modern era about who wrote the Torah. It suggests that the five books were compiled from four discrete, whole, and corresponding written documents. The author (or authors) of each of these documents have been named by scholars since the 19th century, although technically they are anonymous:

J (Yahwist): Composed around the 10th century BCE in Judah (the southern kingdom), the J source uses the name "Yahweh" for the God of Israel.

E (Elohist): Composed around the 8th century BCE in Israel (the northern kingdom), E uses the name "Elohim" for God.

D (Deuteronomist): As its name would suggest, it is found mainly in the book of Deuteronomy and was composed in the 7th century BCE. D emphasizes obedience to the law (that is, the Torah) and a centralized temple for worship and sacrificial activities.

P (Priestly): Composed during or after the Babylonian exile in the 6th century BCE, P focuses primarily on the correct performance of religious rituals, on genealogies, and on rules for the Tabernacle.

Scholars who champion the documentary hypothesis say that later scribes, acting as editors, merged these four documents together into the final Torah. While this theory was the scholarly consensus for many years, David Carr, writing in Hebrew Bible / Old Testament. The History of Its Interpretation, says that this is no longer the case (although many scholars still subscribe to it). While the basic idea of multiple authors of the Torah is not usually questioned, several other theories have emerged which modify this conclusion.

Other Scholarly Theories About Who Wrote the Torah

The Supplementary Hypothesis says that, instead of four separate documents, there was one core text (perhaps like the J or P source) that was then expanded and updated over many years by later writers/redactors. John Van Seters puts forth this theory in his book The Pentateuch: A Social-Science Commentary.

The Fragmentary Hypothesis, on the other hand, expands the number of authors of the Torah. It rejects the idea that long, parallel documents such as  J, E, P, or D ever existed. Instead, it suggests the Pentateuch was created by gathering and weaving together an enormous assortment of much smaller, independent oral stories and fragments. Pauline Viviano espouses this theory in To Each Its Own Meaning, Revised and Expanded: An Introduction to Biblical Criticisms and Their Application.

Finally, there is the Neo-Documentary Hypothesis, a revision of the original documentary hypothesis. As Jason Gaines writes in The Poetic Priestly Source, this theory states that the old sources, J, E, D, and P, are still valid but can be differentiated more by plot and continuity rather than the stylistic or linguistic features used to differentiate them in the past.

When Was the Torah Written?

In his book Egypt on the Pentateuch's Ideological Map: Constructing Biblical Israel's Identity, Franz V. Greifenhagen argues, along with most modern scholars, that the completed Torah was compiled during the time of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, circa 450–350 BCE.

Some of this dating is based on archeological evidence. For example, the earliest manuscript fragments of the Torah, like those found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, can be reliably dated to the late third or early second centuries BCE. In addition, some non-biblical sources, such as the Letter of Aristeas, say that the Torah was first translated into Greek in Alexandria under the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–247 BCE). This type of evidence indicates that the Torah must have been composed and assembled in its final form no later than 250 BCE.

In addition, in Aramaic Papyri of the Fifth Century B.C., A.E. Cowley writes that we have a fascinating set of Jewish texts found at an ancient Egyptian site called Elephantine. These papyri date to the 5th century BCE, and make absolutely no mention of many of the foundational stories and characters of the Hebrew Bible. This indicates to scholars that the traditions in the Torah were composed relatively late. As Cowley notes:

Some scholars argue that the Elephantine evidence suggests the Torah had not yet achieved universal authority among Jewish communities in the 5th century BCE and was thus written and compiled later, again between 450 and 350 BCE.

How Did Followers of Judaism and Christianity Come to Believe Moses Wrote It?

While we can’t know for certain when and why Jews and Christians came to believe that it was Moses who wrote the Torah, there are clues which indicate how it might have happened.

First, the Pentateuch does say that Moses wrote down specific laws and events. For example, Exodus 24:4 says Moses wrote down “all the words of the Lord,” and Deuteronomy 31:9 mentions him writing the law. However, it must be noted that while Moses is said to write down specific things, there is no mention of him writing everything found in the Pentateuch.

Second, we find other Hebrew Bible books, such as  Joshua, which was written not long after the last Torah material, referring to "the Law of Moses" or "the Book of Moses,"which seems to be used as a general cipher for this body of work. Third, we have New Testament references to Moses’ authorship. New Testament writers including Paul, and even quotes attributed to Jesus, cite passages from these books and attribute them to Moses.

Finally, the 1st-century Jewish historian Josephus and the 1st-century Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria both wrote that Moses was the author of all the events and laws recorded in the Torah. This data doesn’t mean that Moses wrote the material, but it does mean that the belief in Moses’ authorship was widespread.

In Struggling with God: An Introduction to the Pentateuch, Mark McEntire writes that there were three factors influencing the belief in Mosaic authorship of the Torah:

What Are the Predominant Themes of the Torah?

We can identify six main themes of the Torah, which I’ll briefly summarize here:

The Covenant

God makes a pact with the Israelite patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob to bless them, make them into a great nation, and give them the land of Canaan. In return, the Israelites agree to be faithful to God by following his laws.

Liberation

In the Torah, God saves the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and guides them through the desert to the Promised Land. In other words, God actively intervenes in history to free the oppressed Israelites.

Laws and Commandments

Rabbinic tradition identifies 613 commandments within the Torah which teach humans how to live rightly under God’s authority. In addition, the laws mandate caring for the poor, the stranger, and the vulnerable, such as widows and orphans.

Divine Creation and Human Disobedience

The first book, Genesis, opens by explaining that God created a perfect world. It then explores how human disobedience to God brings consequences. The theme of obedience to God recurs throughout the Torah.

Holiness

The Torah calls the Israelites to be a "holy nation," meaning specifically to set themselves apart from other nations. It therefore provides guidelines for sacred times, diet, and worship, in order for the Israelites to maintain holiness.

The Promised Land

The predominant story of the Torah follows the Israelites' voyage to possess the land of Canaan. It also emphasizes that staying in the land requires keeping God’s covenant and maintaining justice.

Modern Judaism, Christianity, and Islam on Mosaic Authorship

What do modern religious communities think about who wrote the Torah? There are certainly some that, regardless of the findings of critical scholars, find it important to hold onto belief in Mosaic authorship. Reasons for this vary, but all relate to the fact that if Moses indeed wrote the Torah/Pentateuch, the books’ divine authority, historical reliability, and theological unity are preserved.

For instance, if God really disclosed the laws directly to Moses and commanded that he write them down, then the text must be the literal, infallible word of God rather than a compilation of writings by mere human beings. For those deeply committed to the Bible as literal truth, this is an important article of faith. In addition, if Moses was an eyewitness to the Exodus, the plagues, and the wandering in the desert, then the books also have all the weight and authority of historical truth behind them.

Furthermore, believing in one primary author links the creation of the world, the patriarchs, and the granting of the divine law to one unified story, even if details in the Torah sometimes contradict each other. Moreover, Moses acts as the prime mediator between God and the Israelites. Attaching his name to the text therefore validates the laws, rituals, and the very covenant itself.

Having understood why the notion of Mosaic authorship of the Torah is so important for some traditions, let’s look into modern religious views of this notion.

Judaism

Views about Mosaic authorship within modern Judaism depend on which type or branch of modern Judaism you examine. Orthodox Jews, who follow a traditional branch of Judaism defined by strict adherence to the Jewish law, also stick fiercely to the traditional view that God dictated the entire Torah to Moses. Moses therefore wrote every word.

The more modern branches of Conservative and Reform Judaism, on the other hand, tend to generally accept modern academic and historical scholarship. They are therefore inclined to believe the Torah was written by multiple authors, reflecting the evolving history and faith of the Israelites.

Christianity

Christian opinions are also split between different denominations. Most Evangelical and/or fundamentalist Christians still maintain that Moses wrote the Pentateuch. They sometimes point to quotes by Jesus in the New Testament attributing the Law to Moses. However, when pondering questions such as who wrote about Moses’ death, some modern Evangelicals do allow the possibility of later editors who may have added material.

However, most mainline Protestant and Catholic Christians generally accept critical scholarship on the Pentateuch. Many of them therefore view the text as a compilation of several earlier oral and written sources.

Islam

How is the subject of Moses treated in Islam? It reveres Moses as one of the greatest prophets and messengers of God. Modern Islamic beliefs, however, often combine the notion of Moses’ divine revelation with notions of historical textual transmission.

While Muslims believe God gave the original Torah to Moses, Islamic theology says that the current biblical text has been altered, edited, and corrupted over time by humans. On the other hand, Muslims believe the Quran is the final, perfectly preserved word of God, correcting the corruptions of earlier Scriptures.

Baháʼí

We can also look at the views of the Baháʼí faith for an example outside the normal confines of the larger world religions. Baháʼí is an independent religion founded in 19th-century Iran by a man named Baháʼuʼlláh. Its take on Mosaic authorship of the Torah is a bit different from the other three we’ve examined, not least because the Baháʼí Faith believes that the one God has sent numerous messengers to people, including the Buddha, Jesus, Muhammed, and others.

When it comes to the Torah, Baha'is believe that Moses was a “Manifestation of God” (their epithet for a major prophet). Therefore, the core teachings and laws he brought to the Israelites were indeed divinely inspired. However, Baha'i writings note that the Bible was not written directly by God or the Prophets. Instead, it was passed down through oral tradition, compiled by followers, and translated into many different languages. Because of this, some historical details or exact quotes may be inaccurate or altered.

The real difference, though, between Baha'is’ beliefs about the Torah and those of the Abrahamic faiths concerns a notion called Progressive Revelation. That is, Baha'is believe that God updates His laws as humanity evolves. Therefore, while the laws in the Torah were perfect for the era in which they were received, some are considered obsolete today. Naturally, followers believe the teachings of Bahá'u'lláh replace those previous laws.

Conclusion

For millennia, when people discussed who wrote the Torah, it was believed that the divine laws given to the Israelites to God and found in the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, were written entirely by Moses. This granted the text authenticity and authority for Jews, Christians, Muslims, and others. However, with the start of the Enlightenment, the rise of historical criticism encouraged scholars to examine traditional claims about the Bible using linguistic, historical, and literary methods.

It seemed difficult to believe, for instance, that Moses could have written about his own death, referred to in Deuteronomy. Moreover, the texts sometimes refer to later events which Moses could not possibly have known about. With growing scholarly disbelief in Moses as the Torah’s author, scholars began to theorize about who did write it.

The first major hypothesis, known as the Documentary Hypothesis, argued that the Torah/Pentateuch was the product of four different authors, whose work was then stitched together by later editors or redactors. While scholarly consensus no longer takes this idea for granted, the notion that multiple authors were involved in the Torah’s composition continues to be upheld by most scholars.

While some modern Jews, Christians, and Muslims continue to believe Moses wrote the first five books of the Old Testament, many others accept the theories of modern scholarship, agreeing that it was likely the product of several authors with different viewpoints. Regardless of whether one believes in Mosaic authorship, the deep influence of the Torah on the history of religions cannot be denied.