Asceticism in Christian History

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

Asceticism has long occupied a paradoxical place in Christian history. To some, it evokes admirable images of desert hermits, prolonged fasting, celibacy, and severe self-denial. To others, it appears unnecessary, even hostile to ordinary human life and pleasure.

In this article, I’ll both explain why asceticism was considered necessary by many early Christians and share the stories of well-known ascetics. By exploring the history of Christian asceticism, we’ll see not only the development of Christian spirituality, but also a broader human search for transcendence, self-mastery, and ultimate meaning.

Meaning, Pronunciation, and Etymology of the Word “Asceticism”

Asceticism (pronounced uh-SEH-tuh-si-zm) is a word that has come to be used almost exclusively in the context of religion and spirituality. However, it wasn’t always that way.

A treatise written by a Neoplatonic philosopher named Porphyry who lived in the 3rd century CE illustrates how the meaning of the word changed over time. Originally, the word is derived from the Greek word askein, which meant "to exercise or train for athletic competition." Nevertheless, in his treatise entitled On Abstinence From Animal Food, Porphyry suggests to a fellow student of philosophy that the two of them “go stripped, without tunics, to the stadium, to compete in the Olympics of the soul.” He wasn’t saying they should actually compete in athletic contests. Rather, he was using the original word metaphorically to suggest that they “train” for philosophy. But what did this mean?

As Richard Finn writes in Asceticism in the Graeco-Roman World,

(Affiliate Disclaimer: We may earn commissions on products you purchase through this page at no additional cost to you. Thank you for supporting our site!)

So just as an athlete would avoid certain foods and other luxuries in pursuit of athletic goals, philosophers (and religious teachers) would do the same in pursuit of philosophical or spiritual goals (there was a lot of overlap between the domains of philosophy and spirituality in the ancient world).

The definition of asceticism, then, is abstinence from luxuries and pleasures, usually for spiritual purposes. For instance, Finn writes that Porphyry subjected himself to a strict regimen that he “thought would facilitate contemplation, [involving] amongst other things, a daily practice of ascetic abstention in matters of diet, sexual activity, wealth, and broader social intercourse, all elements in a thoroughgoing detachment from the material and mortal.”

Porphyry’s ascetic efforts in pursuit of union with the divine were similar to those in early Christian circles, showing that asceticism was a widespread spiritual practice in Greco-Roman culture. In fact, Porphyry sounds like a Christian ascetic in this passage from On Abstinence:

The basis of asceticism, both in Porphyry’s Neoplatonist thought and in later Christian thought, was the reformation of the human will. As Tito Colliander writes from the tradition of the early Church Fathers,

In other words, ascetics attempt to empty themselves of their own wills as did Christ (Phil 2:5–8), in order to be filled with God’s will alone. Ascetic Christian literature, therefore, often refers to Jesus’ words in the Garden of Gethsemane before he was arrested and crucified as an example:

Asceticism in the Bible

References to various prophets in the Old Testament show that asceticism was practiced in early Judaism. Both Moses (Exodus 34:28) and Elijah (1 Kings 19:8) fasted for 40 days to purify themselves enough to commune with God. Similarly Numbers 6:1–21 details the rules for taking a Nazirite vow, a way of specially purifying oneself and thus consecrating oneself to God. These rules included avoiding “wine and strong drink” and not cutting the hair or beard (if the Nazirite is a man) until the end of the period of the vow.

As we move into the New Testament period, some scholars see possible Nazirite-like features in John the Baptist. The angel who foretells John’s birth tells his father that John “must never drink wine or strong drink” in Luke 1:14. Furthermore, Matthew 3:4 says that like Elijah, John “wore clothing of camel’s hair with a leather belt around his waist” and that since he lived in the desert outside of cities, “his food was locusts and wild honey.” Later ascetic monks will take inspiration from John’s example.

While Jesus doesn’t remain a lifelong ascetic—he is actually accused of gluttony and drunkenness by Jewish religious leaders (Matt 11:19)—his ministry begins ascetically when he spends 40 days fasting alone in the desert. In fact, Jesus makes it clear that his followers should fast according to certain rules. Those rules focus mainly on fasting secretly rather than trying to impress people with their holiness. The secret performance of virtue is often considered an ascetic practice as well:

Jesus also gives his disciples a general description of Christian life that encapsulates the entire spirit of Christian asceticism in Luke 9:23: “Then he said to them all, ‘If any wish to come after me, let them deny themselves and take up their cross daily and follow me.’”

Paul, too, writes about the importance of self-denial in service to God, sounding remarkably similar to Porphyry above:

Paul’s inclination toward asceticism is fairly clear in this passage. However, there is another passage found in Colossians 2:16–19 that is often cited as evidence that asceticism should not be a part of Christian life:

Further on in Colossians 2:20-23, the author—who claims to be Paul but probably isn’t—mentions several words some people may view as synonyms for asceticism when he writes

Many Christians have interpreted these passages as injunctions against asceticism. A devotional adapted from the teachings of evangelical pastor Robert Jeffress, for instance, says that the problem with asceticism is that “it’s built around restrictive regulations. The ascetic says, ‘Do not handle, do not taste, do not touch!’ Our faith is not about negative restrictions; our faith is defined in positive terms.”

However, in the Jewish Annotated New Testament, scholar Peter Zaas interprets this passage differently. He argues that rather than addressing and condemning asceticism, “the author complains about the Colossians’ observance of Jewish dietary laws and calendar rituals.” Furthermore, Zaas writes that the “self-abasement” in verse 18 does not refer to self-denial: “If it refers to ascetic practice, this is the only place in the NT where it does so; in 2:23 the [same] word means a degree of humility with which the author is uncomfortable, an outcome of following the Jews’ human traditions.” In other words, Colossians 2 forbids not asceticism but following Jewish traditions, which the author sees as un-Christian.

Origen of Alexandria

While there have been many devout ascetics in the history of Christianity, few have been more influential or more controversial than Origen of Alexandria. He was born into a Christian family in Alexandria, Egypt around the year 185 CE. His father was martyred during the persecution by the emperor Septimius Severus when Origen was an adolescent. In his Ecclesiastical History, 4th-century historian Eusebius of Caesarea writes that Origen wanted to follow his father into martyrdom, but his mother would not allow it.

Origen was well-educated both in Greek philosophy and in the Christian scriptures. His combination of the two, like that of Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria, would influence the church for millennia. Origen became a Christian teacher and eventually was ordained a priest. Like many Christians and Greek philosophers, Origen saw asceticism as vital to a life of wisdom. Thus Eusebius writes that Origen

Origen’s extreme asceticism added, along with his prodigious intellect, to his reputation for holiness. Eusebius even claims that as a young man, Origen had had himself castrated in order to avoid the temptations of lust, although most scholars see this as pious fiction since Origen never mentions it or advocates castration in his own writings.

Whatever the case, it was Origen who most propagated the notion of asceticism as holiness within the early centuries of Christianity. In his magnum opus On First Principles, he writes on the intended effects of asceticism:

Origen believed that asceticism, done correctly and with the proper, godly intention, could refine both soul and body until they were capable of uniting with God. As Peter Brown notes in his landmark book The Body and Society: Men, Women, and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity, Origen

This notion—that the body could be changed in the service of the soul through asceticism—would provide the very foundation of the ascetic practices of the first Christian monastics, known as the Desert Fathers and Mothers.

The Desert Fathers and Mothers

The Desert Fathers and Mothers were the first Christian monks and nuns, emerging from Egypt and Palestine in great numbers in the 4th century CE. A collection of their wisdom, known as The Sayings of the Desert Fathers, gives a good idea of the ideals behind their ascetic lives. The collection consists of short, pithy sayings and stories about these monks and nuns. These sayings convey and explain, to an extent, the ins and outs of ascetic spirituality. Let’s take a look at a few examples.

One monk named Abba Isidore (monks are given the title “Abba,” a name meaning “father” while nuns are called “Amma,” which means “mother”) says “it is impossible for you to live a godly life if you love pleasure and money.” However, another monk, Abba Poemen, says in reference to asceticism that “We have not been taught to kill our bodies, but to kill our passions.” Passions (Greek: pathê) in ancient thought were irrational and extreme movements of the soul that disrupted rational thought. In Christian terms, these passions were associated with demons and, thus, with sin. Ascetic practice, by gradually eroding a person’s personal desires, was thought to “kill” these demonic forces, thereby allowing progress toward union with the divine.

Speaking on these passions and ascetic remedies to them, a well-known monk named Abba Evagrius said

Note that each form of passion has its own specific ascetic remedy. For these desert monks, ascetic practices were like medicines and, therefore, had to be applied correctly.

While Christianity clearly has a long tradition of asceticism, most world religions also have traditions emphasizing practices of self-denial. Let’s examine a few of these.

Asceticism in Other Religions

Islam

The mystical tradition in Islam is called Sufism. The Encyclopaedia of Islam notes that the word for abstinence or asceticism often referred to in Sufi sources is zuhd.  The Encyclopaedia says this means to abstain “from what is superfluous, from all that estranges from God; then abstinence from all perishable things by detachment of the heart, [and] complete asceticism, renunciation of all that is created.”

Sufis believe that all earthly desires must be abandoned so that one’s only desire is for God. As the Sufi mystic Ibn Arabi wrote, "How can the heart travel to God when it is chained by its own desire?" Similarly, the best-known Sufi mystic, Jalāl ad-Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī, in a poetic prayer to God, writes "I once had a thousand desires. But in my one desire to know you, all else melted away."

Buddhism

Buddhist lore says that the historical Buddha, after leaving the luxurious palace in which he had grown up, tried living an extremely ascetic life in search of spiritual truth. However, he ultimately rejected both hedonism and extreme asceticism, defining his teaching as "the Middle Way." Having said that, the Buddha and his followers still lived what most people, in his time and ours, would call an ascetic life. They ate only one meal a day and possessed only two robes and one bowl for begging. In addition, they had no permanent home, preferring to wander endlessly, which made them resemble those who followed Hindu ascetic practices. While this may seem like extreme self-denial to most of us, there is another ancient Indian tradition in which extreme asceticism is literally the foundation.

Jainism

For Jains, the ascetic life, including nakedness, fasting, ethical living, and various forms of self-punishment are necessary in order to burn away the effects of past karma and stop creating new karma. The point of this is to stop the cycle of death and rebirth and thus be liberated from suffering. These ascetic practices and others are traced back to Jainism’s founder, Mahavira, who is said to have practiced 12 years of extreme asceticism before finally attaining enlightenment.

Conclusion

In the foreword to the edited volume Asceticism, John Hick writes “Asceticism occurs either in the search for or in response to a believed-in sacred reality – whether found ‘above’ us or through the depths of our own being – in relation to which, or in unity with which, is thought to be our highest good.” This is why ascetic practices, in search of this “highest good,” seem to have always been part and parcel of religious traditions.

The word “ascetic” originally meant physical training, including not eating certain foods, doing certain physical exercises, and avoiding luxuries, all toward the goal of training the body so that it could win an athletic contest. This idea was adapted, both by ancient philosophers and by ancient Christian authors and teachers for spiritual purposes.

While prophetic figures from the Old Testament exemplified this sort of training in pursuit of communion with God, New Testament figures, including John the Baptist, built on this idea, fasting for long periods of time, praying in solitude, and practicing celibacy to purify themselves.

In the post-biblical world, Origen of Alexandria epitomized this notion. A committed ascetic himself, he wrote that through asceticism, the body could make progress toward union with the divine. Origen believed that by giving up one’s personal will, human beings could come to embody God’s will alone.

The Desert Fathers and Mothers of Egypt, however, would create a whole new way of life out of this ideology. Often living in desert caves in the harshest of environments, fasting for long periods, and praying in solitude, these early monks and nuns came to embody ascetic holiness such that laypeople in the surrounding villages and cities often risked their lives by going into the desert to ask the ascetics’ advice rather than asking their local clergy.

While the majority of the world’s religious traditions contain at least some kind of ascetic practices, they are not always undertaken with the same goal as that of Christians. In Jainism, for instance, asceticism burns off karma so that one can escape the cycle of birth and death. For Buddhists, a moderate asceticism helps people achieve detachment from the material world, while in Islam, it helps to eliminate all desires except for the desire for God.

Perhaps this variety of spiritual goals explains why, according to editors of the book Asceticism, self-denial is “a universal phenomenon, in evidence in ancient as well as modern societies.”