Merneptah Stele: Proof of Ancient Israel’s Existence?

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

Have you ever heard of the Merneptah Stele? Every time it comes up, I can’t help but think of archaeology, which, inevitably, brings to mind images of Indiana Jones. I know, I know…Real archaeologists probably cringe when their serious and meticulous work gets associated with Hollywood escapades involving whips, ancient curses, and booby traps.

Still, for many of us, it's hard to shake the connection. Yet, as thrilling as the movies are, the true work of archaeology is even more fascinating, not because it’s full of adventure, but because of the profound insights it gives us into ancient worlds.

Archaeology isn’t just about digging up old objects. Rather, it’s about uncovering stories. It provides physical evidence that helps us piece together the lives of people who left few written records, or none at all. For those interested in the Bible and the ancient Near East, archaeology plays a vital role, as it offers clues that either illuminate or complicate the narratives found in Scripture.

In this article, we’ll explore how archaeology contributes to our understanding of biblical history, with special focus on one particularly intriguing discovery: the Merneptah Stele. We'll begin by briefly examining how archaeology works and why it matters for historians of ancient Israel.

Then, we’ll turn to the Merneptah Stele itself: what it is, how it was found, and why it has become such an important piece of the historical puzzle. Finally, we'll consider what this inscription can (and cannot) tell us about the earliest appearance of Israel on the historical stage.

In case you are really interested in the Biblical world of the Old Testament from a purely scholarly perspective, you might want to check out Bart Ehrman’s new course, In the Beginning: History, Legend, or Myth in Genesis. Over 6 in-depth lessons, Bart explores the Book of Genesis with a historian’s eye, separating historical realities from ancient legends.

Biblical Archeology: A Brief Contextualization

Before we delve deeper into the issue of the Merneptah Stele, let’s step back and introduce the meaning and importance of biblical archaeology.

Biblical archaeology is often misunderstood, sometimes even caricatured as a discipline driven by the goal of "proving" the Bible. However, most practitioners today would firmly reject that characterization.

As Eric Cline aptly explains in his book Biblical Archaeology: A Very Short Introduction:

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In other words, biblical archaeology isn’t about affirming or challenging faith. It’s a branch of Near Eastern archaeology focused specifically on the ancient societies that are also described in biblical literature.

Through the study of material remains (such as pottery, architecture, inscriptions, tools, and everyday artifacts), scholars aim to reconstruct the historical, cultural, and social realities of the ancient Near East, particularly in the regions corresponding to modern Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Egypt, and Syria.

The importance of this work cannot be overstated. Texts alone rarely tell the full story. Archaeology provides an independent line of evidence that can complement, complicate, or sometimes even contradict the narratives preserved in ancient writings. 

It helps us better understand the contexts in which the biblical texts were written: the daily lives of people, the political and economic systems they lived under, their religious practices, and their interactions with neighboring cultures.

Moreover, biblical archaeology has been instrumental in clarifying the broader historical framework within which the events described in the Bible took place. 

It situates biblical traditions within the rich and complex tapestry of the ancient Near East, shedding light on connections between Israel and other ancient civilizations like Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Canaan.

As we turn to the Merneptah Stele, it’s precisely this archaeological lens that allows us to appreciate why a simple inscription on a weathered stone slab can have such profound implications for our understanding of ancient Israel’s earliest historical footprint.

The Merneptah Stele: Discovery and Context

What is the Merneptah Stele? The Merneptah Stele, sometimes called the “Israel Stele,” is one of the most significant archaeological discoveries related to the ancient Near East, but not for the reasons one might first expect. 

Before diving into why it matters so much, it’s important to understand what exactly it is, when it was discovered, and what it says.

The stele was uncovered in 1896 by the renowned British archaeologist Flinders Petrie during his excavations at Thebes, in Upper Egypt. Petrie, already a towering figure in the emerging field of Egyptology, was surveying the mortuary temple of Pharaoh Merneptah when he stumbled upon a large, inscribed slab of granite over 10 feet tall.

Recognizing its historical importance, Petrie and his team carefully documented and published the find, quickly drawing scholarly attention to its intriguing contents.

Physically, the Merneptah Stele is a classic example of a commemorative monument. In the ancient world, stelae like this one were typically erected by rulers to celebrate military victories, proclaim royal achievements, or assert divine favor.

Carved from black granite, the stele is covered with hieroglyphic text praising the military exploits of Pharaoh Merneptah, who ruled Egypt during the late 13th century B.C.E.

The inscription is primarily a piece of royal propaganda, detailing Merneptah’s campaigns against foreign enemies. As Carol A. Redmount succinctly summarizes:

These concluding lines are what have captured the imagination of historians and archaeologists alike. Israel is mentioned among the list of defeated cities and peoples.

How should we understand it? What does the Merneptah Stele say about Israel, and how does this reference help us understand early Israelite history? Let’s take a look at these intriguing questions together! 

The Merneptah Stele: Debates, Significance, and Scholarship

The final two lines of the Merneptah Stele have garnered considerable scholarly attention because they contain what is widely regarded as the earliest extrabiblical reference to a people known as “Israel.” But what does this mention tell us about its ancient origins?

The question has led to ongoing debates about the identity, nature, and historical context of the group named in the inscription.

First, what is significant about the reference itself? In the Egyptian text, “Israel” isn’t marked with the determinative typically used for foreign city-states, but rather with a different determinative: a seated man and woman above three plural strokes.

This suggests that Israel was perceived by the Egyptians not as a city or a land, but as a people or socioethnic group. They were, in other words, a recognizable entity based on kinship, culture, or language rather than a fixed geographical polity.

This distinction has important implications. It suggests that, by the late 13th century B.C.E., “Israel” had already developed a recognizable collective identity, distinct enough to be singled out alongside prominent city-states like Ashkelon, Gezer, and Yenoam.

Moreover, the text boasts that “Israel is laid waste; his seed is not,” a statement that may point to agricultural devastation, which indicates that this group was already settled and engaged in farming.

The geographic location of this “Israel” has also been the subject of considerable scholarly inquiry. Since Merneptah’s campaign narrative groups Israel alongside other Canaanite cities, most scholars agree that they were located somewhere within Canaan.

Roland de Vaux, analyzing the geographical sequence of the Stele, suggested that Israel lay between Ashkelon and Yenoam, placing it in the northern or central hill country. Later, James Hoffmeier proposed a similar reconstruction, arguing that the sequence moves from south to north, with Israel situated primarily in the central hill country and Upper Galilee.

William Dever famously identified these early Israelites with the “proto-Israelite” settlements that began to emerge in the central highlands during the Late Bronze-Iron Age transition.

Taken together, these reconstructions strongly suggest that the Israelites were already present in the heartland of Canaan by the time of Merneptah’s 5th regnal year, around 1209 B.C.E.

The chronological implications are no less important. The Merneptah Stele serves as a firm terminus ante quem. It seems that Israel existed as a distinct socioethnic group in Canaan by the end of the 13th century BCE. This has repercussions for several competing theories about Israel’s origins, from models of conquest and infiltration to theories of indigenous emergence.

Not all scholars, however, accept the Merneptah Stele at face value. A group of so-called “minimalists,” including figures such as Thomas L. Thompson and Ingrid Hjelm, have argued that “Israel” on the Stele may not refer to a historical people at all, but rather to a literary or metaphorical construct.

However, this interpretation faces serious challenges. As Michael G. Hasel has pointed out, the Stele is not a work of literature or myth but a campaign report carved in stone, meant to commemorate real military achievements. 

It lists tangible city-states, including Gezer and Ashkelon, which we know archaeologically to have existed at the time. To suggest that Israel alone among the listed entities was metaphorical stretches credulity.

Moreover, the inscription uses “Israel” without special markers, in the same way it lists its other targets. There is no indication that the Egyptian scribe viewed Israel differently from other conquered groups.

If Ashkelon, Gezer, and Yenoam are understood as real entities, it follows that “Israel” must also have been a real, identifiable people known to the Egyptians. Hasel argues convincingly that to dismiss Israel as merely a literary invention ignores both the Egyptological context and the external corroboration of other names on the Stele.

In sum, the Merneptah Stele offers a rare and invaluable glimpse into the historical realities of the ancient Near East. It provides hard, contemporary evidence that a group called Israel existed in Canaan in the late 13th century B.C.E.

Conclusion

While the Merneptah Stele may not offer the same thrills as an Indiana Jones adventure (there aren’t any hidden temples or lost arks; I’m sorry), it’s, in many ways, far more exciting for historians and archaeologists. 

This weathered slab of stone, inscribed over 3 millennia ago, provides something far rarer and more valuable: direct, contemporary evidence for the existence of Israel in the ancient Near East.

It doesn’t settle all debates or answer every question, but it firmly anchors the name “Israel” in the historical record by the end of the 13th century B.C.E.

Finally, the stele reminds us that archaeology’s true power lies not in spectacular discoveries, but in the patient, careful reconstruction of the past. You may think that’s not exciting, but every archaeologist I know would disagree!

As you can see, the history of ancient Israel is sometimes even more intriguing and complex than anything in the Indiana Jones franchise. If you'd like to dive deeper into the rise of Israel, its kings, and its eventual fall (and examine how the biblical texts both report and interpret these events), check out Joel Baden’s course The Rise and Fall of Biblical Israel. In eight compelling lectures, he unpacks what the Bible says and what the historical evidence suggests really happened.